Music and Extrinsic Neurological Response

Music and Extrinsic Neurological Response

By

David Jefferson

Graduate Studies

University of Nebraska at Omaha

Music in its own entirety exhibits a vast multitude of wonders and stimulation, so much so that one cannot begin to describe an adequate universal experience received from just one such work, composition, or piece. This phenomenon examined under light arises due to an even more complex array of contributing factors both in the communication of, processing, exchange, understanding, comprehension, knowledge, experience, genotype, phenotype and more. The differences in how music affects a single person can even stem beyond environment all the way down to the molecular makeup, and genetic makeup of an individual. With so many complex processes to attend to in the analysis of the musical effect(s) placed upon both listeners and performers, it even becomes quite challenging to water it down to a few decisive factors which would ultimately assimilate a universal response. Since the fundamentals of neurological behavior maintain a litter of cross-points scientifically-proven to be interrelated through contrasting individuals biologically, I feel that neuroscience may be a bridge to understanding induced behavior(s). Many induced behaviors from musical stimuli are readily apparent, yet not fully-understood. There are many behaviors which are even unforeseen, unexpected, and often to many, unknown. It is these unknown behaviors which will allow us to forge links between music and the subsequent behaviors associated from interaction which we can learn from. This paper seeks to prove and interpret the complexity of sub-level interactions among the many astonishing neurological phenomena associated with musical interaction, with references to how they may apply to events from my graduate recital where applicable.  

Scientific studies have proven a direct link between music and physiological response. While music is active on the emotional and intellectual spectrums of listening response, physiological correlations are equally prevalent. Musical rhythms have been noted to provide a type of energy towards which sensual reactions can develop from; imaginary and aesthetic associations can aid with the complexity of such functions. Acute to heavy responses have been proven to be physiologically apparent during musical stimulation such as reflexes in the pupils of the eyes, gastric motility, muscle tonus, and interestingly galvanic skin resistance. Of some of the most studied and intriguing physiological responses are those of the heart rate and blood pressure. Heart rate and blood pressure most always vary in accordance to the musical selection the person is subject to; an interesting fact of note, is that these measurements most always refer to a total change in heart rate from the entire musical selection, not namely a segment within the piece (although all constituents may be interrelated). The level and age of the listeners sometimes is a defining factor in standard deviations of such changes in neurological/physiological behaviors examined. Intelligence, musical aptitude, and developmental learning are factors which can tie into this as well, and require an interdisciplinary approach accordingly (Landreth 4-6).

Such methods and approaches to obtaining information for variability in these aforementioned physiological characteristics have been done with electrocardiograms (ECG), electroencephalograms (EEG), galvanic skin resistance testing, and through monitoring of general respiration values; all such attributes were measured using a Gilson (M5P) polygraph during the periods test subjects were listening to music (under standard testing protocol and procedures). Products of copious testing exhibited substantial differences and variations in monitored heart rate responses reflected from sections displaying contrasts in rhythmical, dynamic, and textural differences. Two types of responses attribute to changes in physiological heart rate(s): Tachycardia and Bradycardia. Tachycardia is elevated heart rate, and Bradycardia is lowered heart rate. As stated, differing musical settings were due to the activation of Tachycardia, and others responsible for Bradycardia within context. Vibrant rhythm, sequential interplay, and progressive dynamic intensity were shown through testing to produce tachycardia. In opposition, the reverse of the latter was seen to produce instances of Bradycardia. Emotional interplay, something which will be discussed as we proceed, was noted to have possibly maintained an influence on heart rate behavior(s). Bear in mind, cardiac rates were compared through these studies before, during, and after musical stimulation; the response was proportional with the music, as well as the type of composition played in the studies. A unique finding which was discovered relatively with the latter is that heart rate response is linked with the presence or absence of learning and/or repetitive exposure to music. Regression analysis further described correlations proving learning rates and exposure rates to music had a significant parallel with changes in heart rate response. A better way to think of this, is an experienced musician listening to the rapid cadenzas during the Allegro Scherzando movement in the opening to Rachmaninoff’s 2nd Piano Concerto during my recital will differ from a non-musicians experience (with respect to heart rate behavior) because the musician is actively keying into the ‘rhythmic detailing’ of the performance, thus increasing heart rate due to an internal knowledge of the faster subdivision and speed of beats/sound (as well as visualizing that tempo mentally) which they are hearing. The non-musician does not visualize the rhythmic constituents as accurately, because their mind has not been classically-conditioned and trained to interpret the rhythm in that style of music- even though they can still reproduce the same auditory sensations alternatively (Landreth 7-11).

Three other responses of particular notice are the listener’s response to sound wave changes in frequency, timbre, and amplitude through a certain number of devices. It is thought and measured that the workings of these three stimulate ‘involuntary’ muscles of the central nervous system, and those reactions are responsible for triggering physiological reactions which later arise into conscious thought. It has even been speculated that music could have been transmitted to higher levels of the listener’s brain, where the sound could have been involved in anything from emotion or abstract thought before it denotes a physiological response. The mental ability of understanding a musical score can also have a profoundly-noted effect on the associated physiological responses a listener can attain. Heart rate is only one aspect of the associated physiological responses (Landreth 12).

There are many other types of responses which music can stimulate neurologically across a variety of expanding brain structures. Many of these studied have proven links to psychological as well as physiological benefits. Such feats have been discovered through neuroimaging experiments showcasing how listening to music holds ties to inducing emotions; these music-evoked emotions can effect and extend to all core areas of emotional processing. Studies at the Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive Neuroscience in Leipzig, Germany have concluded that music making had increased the moods of individuals versus the control group in experimentation. Multiple classifications of brain structures can be affected through music such as areas responsible for cognitive, sensorimotor, and emotional processing. Many of the reasons people go to attend concerts is to acquire those emotional gains; many of the musicians which continue to perform, create, and practice music also participate in the activity for these gains as well. These emotions can be very real, and exemplify the same sensations as biologically-created emotion displays. Even the autonomic, endocrine, and immune systems in the body are affected indirectly through emotional processes activated by musical interaction. Thus, since music’s ability to affect mood and emotion is so strong this becomes a primary motivator for others to endorse and participate in the act of music, whether listening or performing/creating. Neuroimaging studies have been analyzed to prove that the emotions induced are in fact involved with the core structures of emotional processing, that they are real emotions, and not illusionary. Such neurological processing can be utilized in the possible intervention(s) of autonomic, immune, and endocrine dysfunctions through the aid of therapy on the limbic and paralimbic systems via music. Both musicians and non-musicians alike can partake in the pleasurable stimulations of receiving ‘chills down the spine’ and even stimulation of the reward centers of the brain from music. Such stimulation is most likely apparent during the climax of pieces, such as during my recital when the vibrant chords of the closing modulated statement arrives at the end of Chopin’s B-flat minor sonata mvt. 1 signaling a completion of a journey, of receiving a prize at the end of the tunnel; even the moments of safely exiting a complex, and building development such as the beautiful development in this piece. All of these events can be adequately comprehended whether an experienced musician, or non-musician, and such neurological stimulation(s) applied accordingly. Such stimulations were notably received in the ventral striatum, nucleus accumbens, the insula, anterior cingulated cortex, orbitofrontal cortex, and the ventral medial prefrontal cortex (Koelsch 307).

FMRI studies have shown that activity changes in the ventral striatum, amygdala, as well as hippocampus are apparent even without musicians/non-musicians experiencing heavy climaxes in music- brain responses simply brought upon by experiencing joyful tunes. On the other hand unpleasant music caused increases in blood-oxygen-level dependent signals in the amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and temporal poles; such negative experiences and neurological changes of the latter could most likely have been noticed during the performance of Piano Phase by Steve Reich in my recital by unconditioned listeners which were not aware of the goal of the minimalistic piece and thus became turned off by it (which would have been reflected in an fMRI). Further brain studiers have proven that the hippocampus (most notably the anterior hippocampal formation) plays a valuable role in the generation of positive, tender emotional states of happiness, and music attains the power to evoke activity in those related areas. Such changes have been proven to reverse the negative effects of such disorders as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) via a volume reduction of the hippocampal formation thus reanimating the activity in the hippocampus, preventing death of the neurons in the hippocampal region, and lifting the blockage of hippocampal neurogenesis. Such studies have proven that whether performing, listening, or creating music all such activities alleviate the symptoms of depression by modulating the activity of these named structures. As stated earlier, this phenomena can be experienced not only from strong emotional peaks in music, but by the general listening of pleasant music as well, such as listening to a gradual scrolling pleasant piece such as Beethoven’s Rondo in C Major Op. 51 No. 1 during my recital (Koelsch 308).

Musical interaction is indeed also neurologically invigorating in a number of ways which may have passed under our radar. Music engages us through social interaction and social cognition which plays a huge role with processing of neurological functions. During listening to music we automatically encounter processes of mental state attribution such as ‘mentalizing’ the music with a hope of deciphering the desires, intentions, and beliefs of the individual whom created the music. It is interesting to notice that brain activity has correlated with the degree to which a listener believes an intention was expressed by the composer in the music. This finding notes that listening to music automatically engages processes involved with social cognition in an attempt to understand what the composer intentions in the compositions under question most accurately have been. Another outstanding factor noticed neurologically with listening to music is that it enumerates pathways for communication across a variety of age gaps in individuals. Whether this could be from a concert recital such as mine, or groups gathered together to sing or play songs, these acts are valuable for social/emotional regulation and even cognitive development. With regards to communication musical information can have a profound influence upon semantic processing of language, and even upon such neural substrates which overlap with the communication of speech and song. Music making, even the act of listening to music is involved with the coordination of actions. This can involve anything along the lines of synchronizing a beat, keeping a beat, or synchronizing movements to an external beat. Believe it or not, studies have shown that pleasure in the brain is achieved by coordinating the movement(s) of individuals in a group, even with an unshared goal (even in activities such as dancing with music). Cooperation through music was also a measured activity that induced pleasure in the brain neurologically. Whether from a musical performance involving multiple players cooperating for a shared goal, or participating in cooperative behavior, both were essentially potential sources for pleasure in the brain. Lastly, music can actively increase social cohesion of a group neurologically. All of these related behaviors are unique to human beings, and music maintains the power to manipulate individuals and even support non-social behaviors. Interestingly, all of these functions can occur at the same time through the emotional powers of music upon neurological processing (Koelsch 309-10).

Music affects performances in both sensory and motor tasks within the brain and provides therapeutic effects for both anxiety and mental illnesses, but a fact of note is subgroups and certain classifications of listeners/participants yields significant divides in neurological responses. Sensorimotor functions in the brain have been linked with music to decreasing boredom and monotony, increasing work efficiency, and minimizing frustration. Within certain mental illnesses music can actually provide a soothing, calming effect upon the afflicted individual, as well as relieving anxiety. With such distinctions it is no wonder that music is used as a psychotherapeutic tool with not only children, but adults. As discussed earlier Meyer and researchers have concluded music soothes the emotions, releasing inner tension, and relieving the emotional response mechanism. Two scientists Dibner and Whitehead discovered a musical ‘style’ gives way to an emotional response based on ‘experiencing’, not merely listening to the selection. This explains why the mental orientation of a music major and a non-music major yields differences in emotional responses versus musical selections. Another researcher Lidz in 1968 had studied and proven that music not only alleviates tensions and frustrations, but that it can lead to a decrease in self-awareness and an increase in comfort. Scientists Dreher, Henkin, Traxel, and Wrede studied music’s intrinsic effect(s) on the Galvanic skin response (GSR). Certain musical selections either decreased, increased, or had a neutral effect on the GSR of the individuals participating in the studies. The variables in their studies were female vs. male, and music major vs. non-music major on a anxiety-invoking task. The study they had done was performed under two different conditions: with music and without music to determine the change in anxiety versus the variable conditions (Peretti 278-9).

Results from studies by Peter O. Peretti, and Kathy Swenson not only revealed that music affected levels of anxiety, but that the measured differences in the changes in anxiety were varying between females and males, and between musicians and non-musicians. For the participants in the experimentation music not only reduced anxiety and frustration during a conflicting task, but fascinatingly it coordinated the person’s emotional and rational mental states and decreased conflicts between the two. Not only was a closer state of contentment achieved, but music had also shown a decrease in anxiety related to physiological responses. Further this study discussed how auditory stimulation by music playing in the background triggered a response mechanism either overtly or covertly. Overtly the participant would have stated his respective feelings towards the musical selection, while covertly his experience would reflect upon positive or negative changes in overall anxiety level. An example of this could be someone describing his mood during the transition from C minor to C Major in Rachmaninoff’s 3rd movement during my recital at the end of the movement versus how his level of anxiety changed from him listening once the piece entered and terminated in that ‘happier’ key and climax. The same scenario could apply to overall mental values of the listener before and after my full recital. Uniquely, singing or humming or similar states tend to arouse certain inner emotional states; listening to music also has similar effects such as a decrease in states of anxiety, and emotional expressions. Music in these scenarios has been defined as an ‘emotional scapegoat’, a vessel for emotional release, or an anti-anxiety agent. Further results extracted from the previous study had shown that music majors have a greater link between music and sensitivity of emotional responses than non-music majors of either sex. The overt and covert responses in music majors with heightened/trained senses tend to respond more keenly with a greater frequency and feeling. Females, interestingly enough, show greater depth to their neurological and emotional responses to music than men, while both sexes which are music majors show greater overall responses from musical stimulation than non-music majors of either sex. Female anxiety states may have been more flexible or unstable than participants from all other group classifications, showing that females have the greatest affinity for a decrease in anxiety neurologically from musical stimulation (Peretti 280-2).

It has already been shown that emotional responses seem to combine and elicit physiological and motor responses as well under the guidance of a stimulus- the stimulus in this instance being music. The neurological type of arousal is subject to the intensity which one experiences the musical stimulation at. Emotional peaks at different points in time in the music can evoke what are referred to as ‘goose bumps’, chills, or even shivers to indicate the relative peak in emotional values during the listening experience. For example such moments have occurred during the final cadence of Bach’s Chromatic Fugue in d minor BWV 903 in my recital, or at the FFF section prior to the ending cadence in the third movement of the Rachmaninoff. Such musical moments can spur not only emotional, but physiological stimulation neurologically. Two major types of physiological arousal can be Skin Conductance Response (SCR), and Heart rate (HR), both of which are involved during peaks in neurological activity (a variety of other activities evoke such responses, but for the sake of this paper we are referring to those activated by musical response). Listener familiarity of the music being played which evoked such responses is said to heighten the impact of receiving the ‘chill’ effect. This phenomenon is exclusive from outside factors like gender, age, and musical expertise which have shown no influence whatsoever on the chill frequency. Such findings produce the notion that neurological peaks are a viable parameter, synchronizing subjective feeling(s) with the physiological arousal component, without outside influence(s) from motor responses. Grewe, Kopiez, and Altenmuller believe emotional response can be broken down into three defined components: subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and motor response. The physiological components include bodily arousal consisting of changes in skin conductance, heart rate, and other related reactions. The motor responses include behavioral responses e.g. - facial responses and the ‘fight or flight’ mechanism, while the subjective feelings are the conscious feelings which are used to evaluate the emotional response towards musical stimulation. These researchers have also believed that each of these responses can operate either in conjunction or independently of each other in the presence of a musical stimulus. Physiological responses are described to become somewhat objective in relation to emotional response, and patterning of emotional responses (with regard to emotional peaks) varies for individuals at certain points in time. The ‘chills’ spoken about are most accurately defined by Goldstein as ‘a spreading electrical activity in some brain area, with neural links to the limbic system and to central autonomic regulation’. This neural activity has links into a higher understanding of emotional processing in a variety of ways- yet they relate to reward centers in the brain, centers triggering motivation, and correlate with regional cerebral blood flow in the left ventrical striatum and dorsomedial midbrain, and a decrease of regional cerebral blood flow in the right and left amygdale, left hippocampus, and ventro-medial prefrontal cortex. These same areas of the body are similarly activated during the use of illicit drugs in humans and rats, and during food intake and sex in a variety of other animals (Grewe 61-2).

These ‘chills’ have been examined in extrinsic studies involving emotional response and reaction. In regards to music, these chills seem to be related to such musical aspects as sudden dynamic or textural changes, and unexpected harmonies. In regards to that notion Panksepp describes that a greater effect can be experienced when the subject is familiar with the certain piece under question; such phenomena is experienced by females in greater detail during sad segments of the music, and aren’t compared/controlled by physiological measurements. With regard to physiological measurements and musical response skin conductance levels and the skin temperature levels maintained drastically higher levels during sections of music responsible for eliciting the chills. Of the types or styles of music to elicit such neurological/physiological response mechanisms emotional type music was seen to produce a much stronger reaction than relaxing or arousing music or even in film extracts. It was noticed that skin conductance response was apparent during many of the highest segments of emotional music (when referring to emotional music ‘classical’ music is among the most emotionally-expressive types of music to elicit such stimulations). Volume and physiological reactions were connected with chills from musical stimuli, as well as raises in heart rate, electromyograms, and respiration rates. A universal musical stimulus which elicits chills in every listener is difficult to find, and often there are standard errors because often acoustical features have a profound influence upon physiological response. It was still found that the pieces which evoked the greatest instances of chills in the individual was due to listener familiarity with the piece used for musical stimulation; to further use the appearance of chills as a defining factor for research a greater clarity between listener familiarity among heterogeneous groups needs to become established (Grewe 63).

Musical response, partially due to underlying neurology, can be patterned into multiple types of listener responses according to the studies of Myers and his associates. These types they discovered are intra-subjective, associative, objective, and character. Another study by Yingling had determined listener responses to be classified as sensory, emotional, associative, and intellectual. These such classifications are held variable to factors such as sustained interest, relaxation, desire for silence, and the appearance or lack of appearance of mental pictures concurrent or underlying with the musical response. Within the confines of my graduate recital sustained interest was hopefully held through the selection of pieces chosen, relaxation should have been a constant as most of the pieces had very beautiful moments throughout, there was no desire for silence given the attendees were there for the purpose of listening to music, and pictures were not provided alongside the music, but hopefully generated from the musical expression and/or familiarity of the pieces or composers. Given such variables it eludes to yet another layer of neurological response from musical stimuli. These subsequent responses may fall subject to what is referred to as ‘learner attributes’ which could also explain the variation in stimulus patterns of the individuals throughout the studies, as well as the individual’s responses in attendance at my concert. These learner attributes comprise aural discrimination, music listening skills, music preferences, and music appreciation; these are responsible for defining cognitive and personality style traits. The studies of researcher Hedden and associates constructed a Music Listening Reaction Scale (MLRS) used in conjunction with their listening experimentations (using orchestral music as the point of focus). The MLRS scale focused on determining associative responses (such as experiencing mental imagery), Cognitive responses (focusing on the intermittent musical relationships between notes, rhythm, harmony, etc.), physical (the urge for physical interaction or wanting to tap or beat in time with the music or similar physical responses), involvement (the ability to wander from the music via lack of interaction with it), and enjoyment (focusing on whether the music sounds pleasing or unpleasing to you). These factors further illustrate how complex the patterns of the listening response can become, and why knowing these underlying variables plays an important role in determining the neurological response to music (Lewis 311-13).

From Hedder’s results and discoveries some very pertinent connections are established. His results further conclude that given the variance in student/listener response affinities one should take those variable differences into account by exposing the listener to a variety of literature to appeal to diversity in taste and response patterns/modes- although most listeners are already well-aware of whether or not the music they are listening to is pleasant or unpleasant. It was determined that every listener will still view and listen to music in a different way, but their response patterns still bear a significant relationship to their personality variables. To further delineate the complexities in listening response with regard to these variables it was suggested that one should focus on exploiting only individual differences to aid in defining which variables are in interaction during the listening process; such a method would more finely-tune the results and patterns you are measuring or dealing with (Lewis 319). The same could apply towards simplifying layers of variables mentioned in different segments of this paper.

Michael J. Wagner conducted a study on 30 musicians and 30 non-musicians to determine the effect of auditory stimulation vs. silence on alpha rhythm production in the temporal lobe. It has been of interest whether the listening experience shows correlations with the attention paid to music. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible to accurately examine behaviorally what is happening to the listener. Wagner’s studies sought to determine if musical stimuli vs. silence affected temporal lobe alpha rhythm production in musicians and non-musicians, the effect of aural conditions on alpha rhythms, if alpha rhythms are affected by alpha-feedback information, determining the degree of attentiveness of the listener, and the relation between alpha rhythm production and verbal reports of attentiveness. While the aforementioned listener responses and behaviors to music have been monitored physiologically (e.g. - blood pressure, heart rate, finger pulse, and galvanic skin response) this study measured the electroencephalographic monitoring of passive listening, otherwise known as our alpha brainwave rhythms (often an element which is only under subconscious control, which proves its strength as a dependent variable across a number of variables). Adult brainwave frequencies range from 0-30hz, and can be divided into four groups defining levels of interaction in the brain: Delta waves (.5-4hz) which arise in deep sleep or comatonic states, Theta waves/rhythms (5-7hz) light sleep to pre-sleep states of consciousness, Alpha Rhythms (8-13hz) signifying daydreaming, or inward directed attention, and Beta rhythms (14-30hz) representing a state of alertness or outwardly directed attention. These are scientific approximations. Alpha rhythms are created by the synchronous firing of electrical impulses between neurons throughout all lobes of the cerebral cortex in the brain. Alpha rhythms symbolize a fairly calm state of mind. States of relaxation, ‘letting go’, dissolving of focus, ceasing to use the rational mind, inattention, or inwardly-directed attention are all characteristic of Alpha waves. EEG techniques would then be most relevant to measuring Alpha waves on attention rates between musicians and non-musicians (Wagner 3-5).

The findings of Wagner’s study indicated that musicians produced a higher amount of alpha than non-musicians from viewing the experimental music and silence in a totally musical way. The studies determined if Alpha production is indeed a factor of attentiveness, it is to only be viewed conservatively as an indicator because subjects/listeners do not know to which degree they are being attentive to aural conditions. It was expected that alpha rhythms would go up during the period of silence if in fact the subjects are attentive during the phase with music playing. Silence did not increase alpha production proving Alpha production is not a good indicator of attentiveness, or that the listener was in fact tending to something else during the silence condition state. What the study did conclude was that perhaps another aurally sensitive area of the brain may be involved, and the length of time in the silence and music phases would have needed to be increased for a dramatically-noted effect to arise (Wagner 11-13). This phenomenon may explain how in Steve Reich’s Piano Phase during my recital alpha production may have been more present in the listeners because the piece has a greater sustained length of time where the brain has time to ‘tune out’ with the patterns, and become more inwardly-focused and relaxed as the changes in detail are gradual enough to relax the mind, thus lowering frequency range in the brain (that is for the listeners; quite the opposite applies for the one(s) performing the work).

The complexity of physiological and motor responses to musical stimuli demands greater treatment than nearly any other problem in experimental psychology. Factors which have limited accurate results from research in this field of study of physiological response to music are poor statistical treatment, faulty control procedures, and limiting measurement equipment and tools. Music can even elicit strange physiological responses such as the knee-jerk reflex, activity of the stomach, and the pilomotor response (movements of hairs on the skin, not to be confused with the galvanic skin resistance). Of these the most prevalent is of course the effect(s) on Heart Rate (HR). There exists a strong connection to musical rhythm and the innate rhythms of the body which has been proven and studied by everything from musicologists, to psychologists and neurologists. Even the process of perception is guided by the average normal bodily tempo (which much music also exists at) of a heart rate of about 72-80 beats per minute. The heart rate seeks to describe the relationship between the brain’s mechanism to control the rhythms of bodily functions- something which music has been shown to have an influence over (yet the relationship between music and heart rate still remains slightly unclear). Traditionally it was believed that the heart rate would ‘follow’ the rhythmic pulse of the music e.g.- faster HR for faster tempi, slower for slower etc. Yet, another study was shown that any music will increase heart rate, and that even slow music has elicited an increased heart rate. It was also studied that stimulative music has a greater effect on heart rate as opposed to relaxing or sedative music; it is difficult to find raw statistical evidence shifting towards one or the other, however.  The reason heart rate does not fit into either of these predicaments is because some musical experiments have produced no change in heart rate. Though emotional effects are most always a constant, studies of both are often contraindicated by outside factors, even such a factor as the subjects being told not to move, resulting in stiffness (Dainow 211-3).

A lesser studied physiological response is Respiration rate (RR) and Respiration Amplitude (RA), which are still important because breathing simulates our own body’s natural rhythm. Respiration effects have been related to emotional excitement/enjoyment, while others have related it to the tempo of the music, or the attentiveness of the listener. Respiration does not follow the musical tempo, but it has been shown to increase with enjoyment to the music (Dainow 213). Respiration rate would have been too difficult to measure on my own during my recital, but verbal responses from some of the listeners after my recital admitted they had enjoyed the music, thus leading me to believe that a change in this rate could have been established.

Though galvanic skin response (GSR) has not been as widely focused upon, it is still a very important measure to include in physiological responses to music. The main focuses that have been placed upon the measurement of the galvanic skin response are GSR in relation to emotional response to music; it’s response to stimulative vs. sedative music, with respect to dissonant vs. consonant sounds, extraversion vs. introversion measures, magnitude and direction of the response, and rising period or latency (Dainow 214).

Muscle tension is another studied area of physiological responses to music studied through electromyography (EMG). Some have believed this parameter to be a direct reflection of the current emotional state, and that studies on this reflect changes in the entire organism as a whole. Western music is known to evoke tension-resolution mechanisms, which could directly create corresponding muscular reactions to each. Modes which have been utilized to study this phenomenon have been musical intervals and extracts on precision, speed of movement, muscle endurance and energy; postural angle as an indicator of muscle tension, and hand tremors. Only three studies performed had used an EMG for measurement, but studies have indeed shown a strong correlation between muscle tension and music- the effects being stronger in those whom are musicians (Dainow 214-5). An easy example of how this applied not only for the listeners but for myself was every time I approached a trouble spot in the music during my recital one of the leading causes for me to falter was muscle tension just thinking about how seemingly difficult that passage was, much in the Rachmaninoff, some in the Chopin, and even more so in the Steve Reich (mainly due to improper alignment of the two pianos) causing muscular tension in that work primarily from such intense focusing on multi-tasking within my brain with heightened nerves and heart rate from performing in front of a live audience. I would logically have envisioned the greatest muscle tension being exhibited by the audience at my recital during the Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue, which directly states solid moments of tension and resolution many times per measured interval of time.

Music without a doubt has been studied to have an effect on the functioning of the autonomic nervous system’s activity. What happens is described as ‘Neurovisceral Integration’, which refers to the interactions between the central and autonomous nervous systems with regard to physiological, emotional, and cognitive functioning. Heart rate variability is linked in with this complex functioning of the autonomic nervous system. With respect to the autonomic nervous system changes in physiological activity are usually discussed from one of two angles: The byproducts of mood, arousal, anxiety, and other targeted primary areas of study, and definitive barometers of those psychological states. An interesting finding is that since the autonomic nervous system is linked directly to both physiological health, and response to music the autonomic nervous system can be utilized as a link between music providing benefits for physiological health or therapeutic effects. Even though this amazing correlation has been found, little research has been conducted on the link between disorders of the autonomic nervous system and music. Physiological investigations with music have been conducted for the past 125 years, and nearly every organ in the body consisting of some electrical, chemical, or volumetric signature has at some point been under investigation with musical stimuli, though heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and electrodermal activity are the most commonly studied; the types of music which lower such said rates or heighten such rates still remains with a few inconsistencies however music is still proven and believed to have anxiolytic and analgesic properties (Ellis 317-8).

Humans interact with music on both the conscious and sub-conscious levels, behaviorally, emotionally, and physiologically. A great quote by James from 1884 stated that:

“The Autonomic nervous system forms a sort of sounding-board, which every change of our consciousness, however slight, may make reverberate.” (Ellis 323)

Given this, it will be of prime importance to discover the linked interactive behavior involved with the ANS, CNS, and associated organs under the stimulus of music.

How best to approach bodily feedback with regard to emotional states during listening to music is controversial, but will provide a great framework in understanding emotional response to music. Generally in the realm of psychology emotion is believed to be a combination of a vast number of elements comprising cognitive appraisal, physiological arousal, expressive behavior, subjective feeling, and even action tendencies. Of these the main characteristic I am interested in bringing to the table (however, all others are just as relevant) is physiological arousal. While many scholars are interested on the physiological and bodily responses ‘to’ music, the obverse would be ‘physiology’ on the perception of music. Peripheral feedback can have an influence on the level of intensity of emotion felt. Musicologists as well as psychologists maintain a vivid interest in the link between emotional experience with music, and situational/personal factors in addition to only musical characteristics, for body state is only one source of emotional state with music. A main question is whether increased arousal is an accurate measure of heightened emotional experience with music. Knowing whether arousal increases the intensity of all emotions, or only those within relation to the music will help, as would knowing whether arousal influences emotion felt, or only the emotion thought to have been expressed by the music. Feedback from body states again only makes up for one constituent of the entire complex emotional process (Dibben 79-80).

Something which ails all musicians and performers alike is stage fright; it can be proven that stage freight is a combination of numerous physiological imbalances. An interesting fact about this specific physiological element is that given we are psychosomatic beings many of our physiological imbalances could not happen were we able to control our psychological counterparts involved in the change in bodily function. As much as stage fright played a role in my performance at my recital, it may not have been noticed by the listeners; listeners in the audience who have been past performers would be more keen to develop similar physiological changes even as the listener given previous knowledge of how nervous performances can make themselves- thus indirectly allowing them to experience the ‘clinching of nerves’ indirectly during seeing a live performance. This same phenomenon can be apparent by a Nebraska football player hearing the music to their opening entrance onto the field; even when they are not about to emerge onto the field for a game, simply listening to the theme being played can cause a shift in physiological functions psychologically by hearing it. So given this, we now understand simply our ‘thinking’ involved can be a precursor to establishing neurological changes altering our physiological base rates and changes. As mentioned earlier how personality types play a role in physiological/neurological functioning the greatest type of personality to fall subject to psychosomatic disorders are the hard-driving, perfectionist, meticulous types of people- unfortunately all traits which I exude which allows me to fall victim to such psychosomatic disorders as stage fright seen during my recital. Given this personality type I am positive there are further underlying neurological patterns created as a result of my personality type. Something of interest is that stage fright is entirely psychosomatic, and found to be more common among musicians than any other classification of professional group. Stage fright is sparse at younger ages, but develops out of a counting number of traits which form over time; what that could say about extrinsic changes in neurology and physiological behavior in musicians is certainly a point of fascination seeing as emotional responses are tied into an insurmountable number of physiological responses. Surely different mechanisms are responsible for inducing the fear of stage fright, because not the same emotional processing is inherent with the fear of a bear, or other dangerous scenarios. Being an active musician and learning to control this unique form of fear has also been believed to help overcome fears in other areas of life one may encounter, as well as strengthening the ability to use your innate psychological powers to bypass physiological response mechanisms responsible for fear in a widening number of scenarios in life (Martin 100).

Knowing and understanding the origin and function of each type of physiological response, emotional response, behavioral response, and the like will without a doubt refine your prowess as a musician, or any occupation for that matter. The problem is understanding every neurological interaction in play is no easy task, and the levels and layers of complexity involved make sure to prohibit it from being one. This is perhaps why the neurological influence of music upon our body and every one of our senses has remained, and will still remain a unique mystery throughout the ages- one which many researchers alike will remain parsed to uncover.

Works Cited

Dainow, Elliott “Physical Effects and Motor Responses to Music”Journal of Research in Music Education Vol. 25, No. 3 (Autumn, 1977), pp. 211-221

Dibben, Nicola “The Role of Peripheral Feedback in Emotional Experience with Music”

Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Fall 2004), pp. 79-115

Ellis, Robert J. and Thayer, Julian F. “Music and Autonomic Nervous System (Dys)Function”

Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Vol. 27, No. 4 (April 2010), pp. 317-326

Grewe, Oliver; Kopiez, Reinhard; Altenmuller, Eckart “The Chill Parameter: Goose Bumps and Shivers as Promising Measures in Emotion Research” Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal , Vol. 27, No. 1 (September 2009), pp. 61-74

Koelsch, Stefan; Offermanns, Kristin; Franzke, Peter “Music in the Treatment of Affective Disorders: An Exploratory Investigation of a New Method for Music-Therapeutic Research” Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal , Vol. 27, No. 4 (April 2010), pp. 307-316

Landreth, Janet E. and Landreth, Hobart F. “Effects of Music on Physiological Response” Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Spring, 1974), pp. 4-12

Lewis, Barbara E. and Schmidt, Charles P. “Listeners' Response to Music as a Function of Personality Type” Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 39, No. 4 (Winter, 1991), pp. 311-321

Martin, Anna Y. “The Physiological and the Psychological Concomitants of Stage Fright”Music Educators Journal , Vol. 50, No. 3 (Jan., 1964), pp. 100-108

Peretti, Peter O. and Swenson, Kathy “Effects of Music on Anxiety as Determined by Physiological Skin Responses” Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 22, No. 4 (Winter, 1974), pp. 278-283

Wagner, Michael J. “Effect of Music and Biofeedback on Alpha Brainwave Rhythms and Attentiveness” Journal of Research in Music Education, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring, 1975), pp. 3-13